The census tells us about people’s lives, whether people were working, or living in a crowded home, if they were disabled or providing care for others, how much education they had received, and if they considered themselves in good or poor health.
We found that these outcomes varied considerably for ethnic groups across England and Wales.
Ethnicity on the census is self-reported; people said which group they feel best describes their ethnic identity. All 19 ethnic groups in this article are tick-box selections within five main categories, which are part of people’s answers.
Professional occupations were most common for people who identified as “Indian” and “Chinese” (these are people who selected “Indian” or “Chinese” within “Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh”). Social rented housing was more common for people within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African” groups. Self-reported health is worse for people who said they were “Gypsy or Irish Traveller” (within the “White” ethnic category).
Many of these outcomes will be influenced by how young or old people are within each ethnic group. They will also overlap. People in poor health or caring for others may be less able to work or gain education.
Income and where people live will also have a large effect on how people live, as well as any cultural differences. Detailed analysis on location and income deprivation is not included here, but we are considering what we could do in future.
Poorer health for those in “White” ethnic groups of “Irish” and “Gypsy or Irish Traveller”
The ethnic groups reporting the poorest health were people who identified as “White: Irish” and people who said they were “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller”.
On the census, everyone was asked to rate their health from “very good”, “good”, “fair”, “bad”, or “very bad”. Over the whole population, nearly half (48%) of people said they had “very good” health and 1.2% said they had “very bad” health.
Those who identified as “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” had the highest percentage of people saying their health was “very bad” at 3.8%; a further 8.9% said their health was “bad”. Of those who identified as “White: Irish”, 2.0% said their health was “very bad” and 5.7% said it was “bad”.
Health is closely related to age, with older people being more likely to say they are in poorer health. For the “White: Irish” group, this partly explains the difference in health outcomes. People in this group are generally much older, with an average (median) age of 54 years, compared with 40 years for the whole population.
However, the poorer health of people identifying as “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” is not explained by age, because people in this ethnic group are generally young. The average age for this ethnic group is just 28 years.
People who identified as "Bangladeshi" (within “Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh”) also reported poorer health than might be expected since this group is relatively young, with an average age of 27 years.
The highest reported levels of “very good” health were among people who selected the “Mixed or Multiple ethnic group” of “White and Asian” at 67%, and people who identified as “African” (within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African”) at 65%.
“Mixed or Multiple ethnic group” such as “White and Asian” have a younger age profile and a lower median average age (16 years) when compared with the overall population of England and Wales (40 years), which partly explains this health difference. Those in the ethnic groups of “White and Black African” and “White and Black Caribbean” also reported high levels of “very good” health.
People identifying as “White and Asian” reported the highest percentage of “very good” health
Ethnic group by self-reported health status, England and Wales, Census 2021
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Notes:
- "Asian Welsh" and "Black Welsh" ethnic groups were included on the census questionnaire in Wales only, these categories were new for 2021.
- Percentages have been calculated out of the overall population of this ethnic group, using rounded data as such totals may not add to 100%.
Download the data for ethnic group by self-reported health status, (18KB, XLSX)
Women were more likely than men to report having “bad” health across most ethnic groups. The largest differences between women and men for “bad” health were among people who selected “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” (9.6% for women, 8.1% for men). The “Pakistani” ethnic group (within “Asian, Asian British, Asian Welsh”) had the next largest difference (4.2% of women reported having bad health compared with 2.9% of men).
Disability is also self-reported on the census and broadly follows the same trends as overall health. People are considered disabled if they reported being limited “a little” or “a lot” in their day-to-day activities by a long-term health condition. This aligns with the Equality Act (2010) definition.
Nearly 1 in 6 (16%) of those who identified as “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” said they were disabled and “limited a lot” in their daily activities by a long-term physical or mental health condition. Another 11% of people identifying in this ethnic group reported being disabled and “limited a little” in their daily activities.
This is more than twice the rate for the whole population of England and Wales, where just over 1 in 13 (7.5%) of people reported being “limited a lot” by a long-term health condition. A further 10% reported being “limited a little” in their daily activities.
People identifying as “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” had the highest proportion of disabled people
Disability statuses as defined under the Equality Act (2010), by ethnic group, England and Wales, Census 2021
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Notes:
- "Asian Welsh" and "Black Welsh" ethnic groups were included on the census questionnaire in Wales only, these categories were new for 2021.
- Percentages have been calculated out of the overall population of this ethnic group, using rounded data as such totals may not add to 100%.
Download the data for ethnic group and disability, (19KB, XLSX)
People in ethnic groups with higher rates of disability and poorer health typically also provided more unpaid care. Among those who identified as “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller”, about 1 in 20 people (5.2%) provided more than 50 hours a week of unpaid care. Roughly another 1 in 30 people (3.4%) in this ethnic group provided between 20 and 49 hours of unpaid care a week, the highest rate among the 19 groups we analysed.
Around 1 in 20 people identifying as “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” provided unpaid care for at least 50 hours a week
Ethnic group by unpaid care provision, of those aged 5 years and over, England and Wales, Census 2021
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Notes:
- "Asian Welsh" and "Black Welsh" ethnic groups were included on the census questionnaire in Wales only, these categories were new for 2021.
- Percentages have been calculated out of the overall population of this ethnic group, using rounded data as such totals may not add to 100%.
Download the data for ethnic group by unpaid care provision, (18KB, XLSX)
Figures for unpaid care can be affected by perception of the question. Not everyone who provides unpaid care may consider themselves an unpaid carer.
Employment highest for people who identified as “White: Other”
Long-term illness, caring for others, where someone lives, and their age can affect whether more or fewer people are employed within an ethnic group.
For this analysis, we looked at census data for whether people aged between 16 and 64 years were an employee, self-employed, unemployed, or not looking for work (termed “economically inactive”) mainly because they were a student, retired, long-term sick or looking after the home or family.
Census 2021 was taken during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. We asked people on furlough to record themselves as employed, but some people may have said they were out of work instead. There are some differences between Census 2021 data on employment and those from our regular labour market statistics, which are based on the Labour Force Survey. This article explains the differences and the reasons for them.
Around 60% of those aged 16 to 64 years said they were an employee when responding to the census. This figure is highest for people who identified with an “Other White” ethnicity at around 63%.
For self-employment, people selecting ethnic groups within “White” had the highest proportion of people working in this way, particularly “Roma”, “Other White” and “Gypsy or Irish Traveller”.
Unemployment covers people who are not working, who are actively looking for work, and available to start employment. The remaining people who are not working are classed as “economically inactive”.
People who identified with an “Other White” ethnicity were most likely to be an employee
Economic activity status by ethnic group, of those aged 16 to 64 years, England and Wales, Census 2021
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Notes:
- "Asian Welsh" and "Black Welsh" ethnic groups were included on the census questionnaire in Wales only.
- Percentages have been calculated using rounded data, as such totals may not add to 100%.
Download the data for ethnic group by economic activity status, (18KB, XLSX)
Unemployment was highest for people who identified within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African” and also some “Mixed or multiple ethnic groups”. People who identified as “African”, “Caribbean”, “White and Black African”, and “White and Black Caribbean” had unemployment percentages just over two times higher than that of the whole population (overall unemployment in census data for those aged 16 to 64 years was 4.4%). The highest percentage of people who were unemployed was among people who said they had “any other Black, Black British or Caribbean background” at 9.3%.
Among younger people, aged 16 to 24 years, the highest unemployment was among people identifying as “Caribbean” (within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African”). Unemployment as measured in census data was generally higher for young people, particularly those aged 20 to 24 years. Of people aged 20 to 24 years within this "Caribbean" group, 17% recorded themselves as unemployed. This ethnic group also had the highest percentage of unemployed 16- to 19-year-olds at 15%.
Unemployment figures for young people are affected by people choosing to stay in full-time education. This is because students without a job are counted as “economically inactive” rather than unemployed, unless they are actively looking for work.
Among reasons for being economically inactive, women were more likely than men to say they were looking after home or family. This difference was particularly large among people identifying in the “Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh” ethnic groups of “Bangladeshi” (16% for females “looking after home or family” compared with 2% for males) or “Pakistani” (15% for females, 2% for males). There were also large differences among people identifying as “White: Gypsy and Irish Traveller” (14% of females, 3% of males), and “Arab” within “Other” (12% for females, 2% for males).
People are counted as being economically inactive for this reason only when they are not also retired, a student or long-term sick. This means the number of people who are looking after home or family in all situations is higher.
Studying or “looking after home or family” were the most common reasons for economic inactivity across ethnic groups
Reasons for not working and not seeking work or being available to work (economic inactivity), by ethnic group, of those aged 16 to 64 years, England and Wales, 2021
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Notes:
- "Asian Welsh" and "Black Welsh" ethnic groups were included on the census questionnaire in Wales only, these categories were new for 2021.
- Percentages have been calculated out of the overall population of this ethnic group, using rounded data as such totals may not add to 100%.
Download the data for ethnic group by reasons for economic inactivity, (18KB, XLSX)
Those who identified within the “Chinese” ethnic group were considerably more likely to be economically inactive students (24%), as well as those who selected the “Arab” tick box (20%). Some ethnic groups are also more likely to be retired. These included people who identified as “White: Irish”, “White: English, Welsh, Scottish, Northern Irish or British” and also “Chinese”. This is partly informed by age profiles.
“Chinese” or “Indian” groups most likely to have a higher-level qualification
People who identified as “Chinese” or “Indian” (both within “Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh”) had the highest levels of education of the 19 ethnic groups we analysed, closely followed by “African” (within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African”).
Around 3 in 10 (34%, or over 16 million people) of everyone aged over 16 years in England and Wales said they had a higher-level qualification (Level 4 or above). Of people who identified as “Chinese”, 56% had this level of qualification. More than half (52%) of people in the “Indian” ethnic group had a higher-level qualification, followed by nearly half of people who selected the ethnic group tick box for “African” (49%).
Those who identified within the “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” ethnic group had the lowest proportion of people with a higher-level qualification at 1 in 9 people (11%), and were most likely to have no formal qualifications (57%). This was followed by those who identified as “White: Roma”, around 3 in 10 of whom had no formal qualifications (31%). However, a similar proportion of people in this “Roma” group had a higher-level qualification (32%).
The “White and Asian” ethnic group (of the “Mixed or Multiple ethnic group”) had the lowest percentage of people with no qualifications at 9%.
People could also say they had “other qualifications” not within an educational level described on the census questionnaire. These can include qualifications people gained in another country. The “White: Roma” ethnic group had the highest percentage of people with “other qualifications” at 7%, followed by “White: Other” at 6%, and those who selected the “Arab” tick box (5%).
In most ethnic groups, a larger percentage of women had higher-level qualifications (Level 4 and over) than men. The largest differences were among people identifying as "Caribbean" (within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African”). Of women in this ethnic group aged 16 years and older, 40% reported having a higher-level qualification. By comparison, 27% of men in this ethnic group had the same qualification level.
“Professional occupations” has largest difference between ethnic groups
The percentage of people working in professional occupations varies considerably between ethnic groups for those aged 16 to 64 years.
There are nine categories for the types of work people do in the census. These are:
- Managers, directors or senior officials
- Professional occupations
- Associate professional and technical occupations
- Administrative and secretarial occupations
- Skilled trades occupations
- Caring, leisure and other services
- Sales and customer service
- Process, plant and machine operation
- Elementary occupations
Of the 19 ethnic groups we analysed, people who identified as “White: Irish” had the largest percentage of people working as “managers, directors or senior officials” at 17%. This is likely partly because of this ethnic group being older and potentially having had longer in the workforce. This was followed by the “Chinese” ethnic group (within “Asian, Asian British, Asian Welsh”) at 15%, and then two ethnic groups that both had 13% of people working in these roles: “Indian” and “White: English, Welsh, Scottish, Northern Irish or British”.
“Professional occupations” (for example, doctors, teachers and lawyers) also saw high percentages of people within the “White: Irish”, “Chinese” and “Indian” ethnic groups, followed by people who identified as “Arab” through the tick box option. Professional occupations have some of the biggest differences in the percentage of people with these types of roles, ranging from 34% for “Chinese” to as low as 6% for “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller”.
There are large differences between ethnic groups for “professional occupations”
Occupations of those in work, by ethnic group, of those aged 16 to 64 years, England and Wales, Census 2021
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Notes:
- "Asian Welsh" and "Black Welsh" ethnic groups were included on the census questionnaire in Wales only, these categories were new for 2021.
- Percentages have been calculated out of the overall population of this ethnic group, using rounded data as such totals may not add to 100%.
- Occupation counts classify people who were in employment between 15 March and 21 March 2021, by Standard Occupation Classification code (2020 version)
Download the data for ethnic group by occupation type, (18KB, XLSX)
The category for “associate professional and technical occupations” includes, for example, actors, aircraft pilots, authors, IT technicians and estate agents. The picture for this type of work is fairly even across ethnic groups, with people identifying within “Mixed or Multiple ethnic groups” being more likely to list this kind of work on the census.
“Administrative and secretarial occupations” are mostly held by women across all ethnic groups. People who identified as “Caribbean” and “any other Black, Black British or Caribbean background”, (both within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African”), had the highest percentages of people working in these occupations, at 11% and 10% respectively.
The “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” ethnic group had the highest percentage for “skilled trades occupations” at 19%.
People working in “caring, leisure and other service occupations” are mostly women across all ethnic groups. The highest percentages of people working in this field identified as "African" within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African” (20%), of which just under three-quarters were women (14%).
People who identified as “Bangladeshi” and “Pakistani” (within “Asian, Asian British, Asian Welsh”) had the largest proportion of people working in “sales and customer service” (at 14% and 13% respectively). A broadly equal number of men and women in these ethnic groups worked in these types of occupation. These two ethnic groups also had a larger proportion of people working as process, plant and machine operatives (12% and 15% respectively).
This type of occupation was also more common for people who identified as the “White” ethnic groups of “Roma” (12%), “Gypsy or Irish Traveller” (11%) and “Other White” (11%).
The highest percentage of people working in elementary occupations (jobs that require fewer formal qualifications) identified as “White: Roma” and “White Gypsy or Irish Traveller” (28% and 24% respectively). This is borne out by the analysis of education attainment.
These are just some of the findings that the census gives us on how people live in England and Wales across ethnic groups. More information, including regional and country data for ethnic groups, is still to come, and is due to be published as part of Phase 2 of our Census 2021 release plans.
About the data
Ethnic group
“Ethnic group” refers to the ethnic group that the person completing the census feels they belong to. This could be based on their culture, family background, identity or physical appearance.
Respondents could choose 1 out of 19 tick-box response categories, including write-in response options.
There were two stages to the ethnic group question. The respondent identifies first through one of the following high-level options before selecting a tick-box:
- "Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh"
- "Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African"
- "Mixed or Multiple"
- "White"
- "Other ethnic group"
To see the ethnic group question on the household, individual and Welsh questionnaires, visit our Census 2021 paper questionnaires page.
Comparing other census releases
This analysis used different population bases and calculation methods to previous releases on housing, education, health, disability and unpaid care, and labour market as measured through census.
- For health, disability and unpaid care, this analysis did not use age-standardised rates, that is, we simply stated the percentage of people within an ethnic group of a particular health or disability status, without adjusting for the age structure of that group.
- The base population for our analysis of unpaid care is usual residents aged 5 years and over.
- For employment status and occupation, we used a population base of all usual residents aged 16 to 64 years to focus on ethnic group differences among those of working age. This means figures will be different to releases where we include all usual residents aged 16 years and over, such as the measure on census maps.
- For housing, this analysis focused on usual resident or record level, because ethnic group is individual. This is a different measure to our Housing, England and Wales: Census 2021 release, where we focused on household level analysis, rather than the individuals who lived within them.
- The base population for our analysis of highest level of qualification (education) is usual residents aged 16 years and over.
Census 2021 was conducted during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, a period of unparalleled and rapid change. It is possible that this impacted the way some people responded to labour market questions on the census. Estimates from the census will also differ to those collected on the Labour Force Survey because of a range of conceptual differences between the two sources. For further information about interpreting census labour market data, see our Comparing Census 2021 and Labour Force Survey estimates of the labour market, England and Wales: 13 March 2021 article.
Social rented housing was more common for people within “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African” groups
Home ownership, rent and overcrowding vary hugely between ethnic groups. This does not include communal establishments, such as university halls of residence or care homes.
The census tells us if people lived in a home that is owned outright, owned with a mortgage or loan, or if they lived in a rented home. If rented, the census tells us if that was social rented housing (such as from a council or housing association), private rent, or if they were living rent free (for example, in a home owned by a family member or friend). Ethnicity is individual, so we are looking here at percentages of people, rather than the percentage of rented or owned properties as published as published in our housing topic summary for census.
Around 17% of the population in England and Wales lived in social rented housing. This type of housing was much more common among people who identified as “Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African”. Within this category, of those who identified as “African”, 44% of those counted on the census were in social rented accommodation; for “Caribbean”, it was 41%. Nearly half (48%) of people who identified as “any other Black, Black British or Caribbean background” were in social rented housing.
Other higher rates of social rent were in the “White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller” ethnic group (44%) and the Mixed or Multiple ethnic groups of “White and Black Caribbean” (39%) and “White and Black African” (32%). There were similar rates of social rent among those who identified as “Bangladeshi” (34%) and “Arab” (29%) within the broader categories respectively of “Asian, Asian British, Asian Welsh” and “Other”.
Social rented housing was most common among people identifying as “any other Black, Black British or Caribbean background”
Percentage of people living in social rented housing, by ethnic group, England and Wales, 2021
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Download the data for ethnic group by social rented housing tenure, (17KB, XLSX)
Across the whole of the population in England and Wales, around a fifth of people (20%) lived in a privately rented property or lived rent free. Among people identifying as “White: Roma”, three-quarters (75%) had this type of housing, the highest of any ethnic group. This was followed by “White: Other”, with just over half (53%) of people renting privately or living rent free, and people who selected the tick box for “Arab” (46%).
These ethnic groups all have average ages of around 30 years, which may partly explain why they are more likely to live in private rented and rent-free homes.
Home ownership rates are affected by age, because older people have had longer to accumulate wealth, but there are also other factors such as income. We look at occupations and the types of work common to ethnic groups in the next section.
Around 63% of individuals answering the census lived in a home that was owned by someone at that address. Home ownership was most common for people who identified as Indian at 71% and “English, Welsh, Scottish, Northern Irish or British” at 68%. (These tick boxes fall within “Asian, Asian British, Asian Welsh and White”, respectively).
Overcrowding, or having more people in a household than the recommended number of bedrooms, is most common for people who identified as “Bangladeshi”, with nearly two-fifths of people in this living situation (39%). For the whole population of England and Wales, that figure is lower than 1 in 10 people (8%). The “White: Irish” group are generally older and had the lowest rate of over-occupancy at 3.5%.